Essay about The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara - 957 Words

The killer angels is a world acclaimed novel that was written by an author known as Michael Shaara. In the year 1975, it was granted the Pulitzer Prize for creative writing. It gives us in details the occurrences of the four days in the Battle of Gettysburg. This was during the American Civil War that occurred in the year 1863. At this time, troops that comprised of both the Union and Confederacy were at war in town called Gettysburg in Pennsylvania. This is a piece of story that is driven by disposition and narrated from the point of view of various heroes (Hartwig, 1996). The novel starts with a preamble that actually pace sets the panorama for the proceeding actions and is split into two sections. The first section defines two†¦show more content†¦The book therefore interchanges through the north and south in all the chapters. Different forces are portrayed in the novel and all their movements described. The experiences that they also undergo are an accurate depiction of the situation at the time the Gettysburg war occurred. The book manages to get into the minds of the heroes in the novel. We are shown a byplay of General Longstreet and Lee on the southern part, the way the former’s view of the latter takes a change during the period of the war and by large the authority that General Lee commands over his men in the army. In the north, we are shown how the war was waged through General Chamberlain. He is headed with his very tired army that is not ready for a full attack by the southern insurgents. The novel really causes you to feel like you understand these people in the moments that lead to the grand battle, striding into a long gone time where the asset of respect still means a lot, even when the world is taking a different course as they stage war. The plot of the book seems so relevant and true in relation to the historical context it is set in. This is very evident in the depictions of the different forces, their advances and movements, the situations that they are going through and even the climate and weather is considered very accurate in relation to the post Gettysburg war. There are a number of historical figures that exist in the novel. These are individuals like RobertShow MoreRelatedThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1634 Words   |  7 PagesPulitzer Prize-winning author Michael Shaara, the author of The Killer Angels, was born on June 23, 1928 in Jersey City, New Jersey. He was an author of science fiction, sports fiction, and historical fiction. Although writing was his passion, Shaara was very athletically successful in high school, winning more awards than any other student in the history of the school for sports such as basketball, track and baseball. He acquired a skill in boxing, and of the 18 matches Shaara fought as a young man, heRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1290 Words   |  6 Pages The Killer Angels Essay â€Å"There is no honorable way to kill, no gentle way to destroy. There is nothing good in war. Except its ending.† Stated by Abraham Lincoln, this quote embodies the essence of war, its tragic character and unfortunate occasional necessity. Accordingly, the outcome of war and its battles is often determined by the attitudes of the leaders of the opposing sides, including their causes for the willingness to fight and to be fought. Such was the case with the Battle of GettysburgRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1521 Words   |  7 PagesThe book The Killer Angels was published in 1975 by the Ballatine Booksand was written by Michael Shaara. The Killer Angels is a historic novel about the time of the American Civil War, more specifically The Battle of Gettysburg. Shaara wrote this historical masterpiece with the sole purpose of letting the reader know exactly how the war was for the men actually putting their lives on the line to get this great country of America to the stature it is today. In order to accomplish his goal of creatingRead MoreThe Killer Angel By Michael Shaara1248 Words   |  5 Pages The Killer Angel is a book elaborating on the history of the American civil war authored by Michael Shaara. The book has gained popularity among American citizens as it covers one of the deadliest battles in American history that took place at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, hence the title of the battle of Gettysburg (Shaara 5). The crash involved two major groups, the Confederacy, and the Union. The Confederacy constituted of seven secessionist states from the South who advocated forRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1947 Words   |  8 Pagesthe dueling North and South together to the small town of Gettysburg and on the threshold of splitting the Union. Gettysburg was as close as the United States got to Armageddon and The Killer Angels gives this full day-to-day account of the battle that shaped America’s future. Michael Shaara author of â€Å"The Killer Angels,† tells the story of the Battle of Gettysburg through the eyes of generals Robert E. Lee, Joshua Chamberlain, James Longstreet, and John Buford, and the other men involved in the actionRead MoreKiller Angels By Michael Shaara850 Words   |  4 Pages In the Pulitzer Prize winning civil war novel Killer Angels, Michael Shaara covers five days of the historic battle between the Northern and Southern United States at Gettysburg. Both the North and the South fought for freedom, although they did not have equivalent definitions of freedom. The North and the South were unwavering in their beliefs and their hope for a better United States, but what the two butted heads the most on was slavery. The South was a primarily agrarian region which reliedRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1117 Words   |  5 Pages Michael Shaara’s 1974 historical novel, The Killer Angels, covers the story of the four days of the Battle of Gettysburg that also features maps for visualization. The format of the story is well organized. It begins with a Foreword, which describes in great detail the armies and soldiers involved in the battle. It follows up with four sections and within each section there are chapters that are written in chronological order, covering the events between Monday, June 29, 1863 and Friday, July 3Read MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara Essay1255 Words   |  6 Pages In the novel The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara, the story is told from the perspective of the men that fought in the war of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania on July 1863. We are able to see both sides of the combatants, their struggles they faced, friendships acquired, losses, personal stories and their views. In history we only learn the superficial information of how it occurred in the battle and the outcome of it, but we do not know how it happened and how much effort it took to fight in thatRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara1123 Words   |  5 PagesThe Killer Angels Novel written by Michael Shaara describes the Gettysburg battle from the perspective of Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, various soldiers from both sides, and other men who fought in the battle. This author makes the reader go back in time and actually makes the reader depict the circumstances, and situations that soldiers and generals faced. This Novel makes the reader know that both sides were eager to win, and bring this bloodshed to an end. This amazing Novel shows how neighborRead MoreThe Killer Angels By Michael Shaara852 Words   |  4 PagesThe Killer Angels by Michael Shaara was not just a fiction novel, it was a story of a man who actually saw the battlefield of Gettysburg and learned about the battle and its importance. When he returned from the battle sight he decided to write a novel based on his experience there. Instead of creating fictional characters he used the names and experiences he had directly with the main characters of the novel. Not only did Shaara study and review letters, documents and journal enteries of the men

The Secret Circle The Initiation Chapter Eight Free Essays

â€Å"You sent the note,† Cassie said flatly. Faye smiled her slow, terrible smile. â€Å"Somehow I didn’t think you’d come if I used my own name,† she said. We will write a custom essay sample on The Secret Circle: The Initiation Chapter Eight or any similar topic only for you Order Now And I fell for it, Cassie thought. She must have coached that girl Tina on what to say – and I swallowed it. â€Å"How do you like the little presents you’ve been finding?† Tears came to Cassie’s eyes. She couldn’t answer. She felt so drained, so helpless – if only she could think. â€Å"Haven’t you been sleeping well?† Faye continued, her throaty voice innocent. â€Å"You look awful. Or maybe your dreams have been keeping you awake.† Cassie turned to cast a quick look behind her. There was an exit there, but Suzan was in front of it. â€Å"Oh, you can’t go yet,† Faye said. â€Å"I wouldn’t dream of letting you.† Cassie stared at her. â€Å"Faye, just leave me alone†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Dream on,† said Deborah, and she laughed nastily. Cassie could make no sense out of this. But then she saw that Faye was holding a sheet of paper. It was smoothed flat, but it had once been tightly crumpled. Her poem. Anger blazed through her exhaustion. Blazed so bright that for an instant she was full of energy, lifted by it. She lunged at Faye crying, â€Å"That’s mine!† It took Faye by surprise. She reeled back, dodging, holding the poem high out of Cassie’s reach. Then something caught Cassie’s arms from behind, pinning them. â€Å"Thank you, Deborah,† Faye said, slightly breathless. She looked at Cassie. â€Å"I suppose even a little white mouse will turn. We’ll have to remember that. But just now,† she continued, â€Å"we’re going to have an impromptu poetry reading. I’m sorry the atmosphere isn’t more – appropriate – but what can you do? This used to be the science building, but nobody comes here much anymore. Not since Doug and Chris Henderson made a little mistake in a chemistry experiment. You’ve probably seen the Henderson brothers – they’re hard to miss. Nice guys, but a little irresponsible. They accidentally made a bomb.† Now that Cassie’s eyes had adjusted again, she could see that the room was burned out. The walls were black with soot. â€Å"Of course, some people think it’s unsafe here,† Faye continued, â€Å"so they keep it locked. But we’ve never let a little thing like that stop us. It is private, though. We can make all the noise we want and nobody will hear us.† Deborah’s grip on Cassie’s arms was painful. But Cassie started to struggle again as Faye cleared her throat and held up the paper. â€Å"Let me see†¦ ‘My Dreams,’ by Cassie Blake. Imaginative title, by the way.† â€Å"You don’t have any right – † Cassie began, but Faye ignored her. She began reading in a theatrical, melodramatic voice: â€Å"Each night I lie and dream about the one – â€Å" â€Å"It’s private!† Cassie cried. â€Å"Who kissed me and awakened my desire – â€Å" â€Å"Let me go!† â€Å"I spent a single hour with him alone – â€Å" â€Å"It isn’t fair – â€Å" â€Å"And since that hour, my days are laced with fire.† Faye looked up. â€Å"That’s it. What do you think, Deborah?† â€Å"It stinks,† Deborah said, then gave a little wrench to Cassie’s arms as Cassie tried to tear away. â€Å"It’s stupid.† â€Å"Oh, I don’t know. I liked some of the imagery. About fire, for instance. Do you like fire, Cassie?† Cassie went still. That lazy, husky voice had a new note in it, a note she recognized instinctively. Danger. â€Å"Do you think about fire, Cassie? Do you dream about it?† Dry-mouthed, Cassie stared at Faye. Those honey-colored eyes were warm, glowing. Excited. â€Å"Would you like to see a fire trick?† Cassie shook her head. There were things worse than humiliation, she was realizing. For the first time this week she was afraid, not for her pride, but for her life. Faye snapped the piece of paper in her hand, forming it into a loose cone. Flame burst out of one corner at the top. â€Å"Why don’t you tell us who the poem is about, Cassie? This boy who awakened you – who is he?† Cassie leaned away, trying to escape the blazing paper in front of her face. â€Å"Careful,† Deborah said mockingly from behind her. â€Å"Don’t get too close to her hair.† â€Å"What, you mean this close?† said Faye. â€Å"Or this close?† Cassie had to twist her neck to evade the flame. Little glowing bits of paper were flying off in every direction. The brightness left an afterimage, and she could feel heat on her skin. â€Å"Oops, that was close. I think her eyelashes are too long anyway, Deborah, don’t you?† Cassie was fighting now, but Deborah was astonishingly strong. And the more Cassie struggled, the more the grip hurt. â€Å"Let go of me – † she gasped out. â€Å"But I thought you liked fire, Cassie. Look into the fire. What do you see?† Cassie didn’t want to obey, but she couldn’t help it. Surely the paper should have burned up by now. But it was still blazing. Yellow, she thought. Fire is yellow and orange. Not red like they say. All her senses were fixed on the flame. Its heat brought a dry tingle to her cheeks. She could hear the crumple of paper as it was consumed; she could smell the burning. And she could see nothing else. Gray ash and yellow flame. Blue at the bottom like a gas burner. The fire changed shape every second, its radiance streaming endlessly upward. Pouring out its energy†¦ Energy. Fire is power, she thought. She could almost feel the charge of the golden flame. It wasn’t the. vast quietness of sky and sea, or the waiting solidity of rock. It was active. Power there for the taking†¦ â€Å"Yes,† Faye whispered. The sound shocked Cassie out of her trance. Don’t be crazy, she told herself. Her fantasy about the flame collapsed. This was what happened when you didn’t get any sleep. When the stress became unbearable and you got to the end of your resources. She was going insane. Tears flooded her eyes, fell down her cheeks. â€Å"Oh, she’s just a baby after all,† Faye said, and there was savage disgust in her voice. Disgust and something like disappointment. â€Å"Come on, baby, can’t you cry any harder than that? If you cry hard enough, maybe you can put it out.† Still sobbing, Cassie tossed her head back and forth as the blazing paper stabbed closer. So close that tears fell on it and sizzled. Cassie was no longer thinking; she was simply terrified. Like a trapped animal, a desperate, pathetic trapped animal. Dead meat dead meat dead meat dead meat†¦ â€Å"What are you doing? Let go of her – now!† The voice came out of nowhere, and for an instant Cassie didn’t even attempt to locate it. Her whole being was focused on the fire. It flared up suddenly, dissolving almost instantaneously into soft gray ash. Faye was left holding only a stump of charred paper cone. â€Å"I said let her go!† Something bright came at Deborah. But not bright like fire. Bright like sunlight. Or moonlight, when the moon is full and so dazzling you can read by it. It was her. The girl, the girl from the yellow house, the girl with the shining hair. Utterly dumbfounded, Cassie stared as if seeing her for the first time. She was almost as tall as Faye, but unlike Faye in every other respect. Where Faye was voluptuous, she was slender; where Faye was dressed in red, she was dressed in white. Instead of a wild black mane like Faye’s, her hair was long and straight and shimmering – the color of the light streaming in the window. And of course she was beautiful, even more beautiful this close than she had been at a distance. But it was a beauty so different from Faye’s it was hard to think of it as the same thing. Faye’s beauty was stunning but scary. Her strange golden eyes were fascinating, but they also made you want to run away. This girl looked like something from a stained-glass window. For the first time Cassie saw her eyes, and they were green and clear, brilliant, as if light were behind them. Her cheeks were faintly flushed with rose, but it was natural color, not makeup. Her breast was heaving with indignation, and her voice, though clear and musical, was filled with anger. â€Å"When Tina told me she’d delivered that note for you, I knew there was something going on,† she said. â€Å"But this is unbelievable. For the last time, Deborah, let her go!† Slowly, reluctantly, the grip on Cassie’s arms loosened. â€Å"Look at this†¦ you could have hurt her,† the fair-haired girl raged on. She had a Kleenex out and was wiping ash – and tears – off Cassie’s cheeks. â€Å"Are you all right?† she asked, her tone gentling. Cassie could only look at her. The shining girl had come to rescue her. It was like something out of a dream. â€Å"She’s frightened to death,† the girl said, turning on Faye. â€Å"How could you, Faye? How could you be so cruel?† â€Å"It just comes naturally,† Faye murmured. Her eyes were hooded, sullen. As sullen as Deborah’s face. â€Å"And you, Suzan – I’m surprised at you. Don’t you see how wrong it is?† Suzan mumbled something, looking away. â€Å"And why would you want to hurt her? Who is she?† She had a protective arm around Cassie now as she looked from one of the senior girls to another. None of them answered. â€Å"I’m Cassie,† Cassie said. Her voice wobbled at the end, and she tried to steady it. All she could feel was the girl’s arm around her shoulder. â€Å"Cassie Blake,† she managed to finish. â€Å"I just moved here a couple of weeks ago. Mrs. Howard is my grandmother.† The girl looked startled. â€Å"Mrs. Howard? At Number Twelve? And you’re living with her?† Fear darted through Cassie. She remembered Jeffrey’s reaction to hearing where she lived. She would die if this girl responded the same way. Wretchedly, she nodded. The fair-haired girl whirled back on Faye. â€Å"Then she’s one of us! A neighbor,† she added sharply as Faye’s eyebrows shot up. â€Å"Oh, hardly,† Faye said. â€Å"She’s only half – † Suzan began. â€Å"Shut up!† said Deborah. â€Å"She’s a neighbor,† the fair-haired girl repeated stubbornly. She looked at Cassie. â€Å"I’m sorry; I didn’t know you’d moved in. If I had – she threw an angry glance at Faye – â€Å"I’d have stopped by. I live down at the bottom of Crowhaven Road , Number One.† She gave Cassie another protective squeeze. â€Å"Come on. If you want, I’ll take you home now.† Cassie nodded. She would have happily followed if the girl had told her to jump out a window. â€Å"I forgot to introduce myself,† the girl said, stopping on the way to the stairs. â€Å"My name’s Diana.† â€Å"I know.† Diana had a blue Acura Integra. She stopped in front of it and asked Cassie if she wanted to get anything from her locker. With a shudder, Cassie shook her head. â€Å"Why not?† Cassie hesitated. Then told her. Everything. Diana listened, arms folded, toe tapping with increasing speed as the story went on. Her green eyes were beginning to shine with an almost incandescent fury. â€Å"Don’t worry about it,† was all she said at the end. â€Å"I’ll call and have the custodian clean out the locker. For now, we need to get you out of here.† She drove, telling Cassie to leave the Rabbit. â€Å"We’ll take care of it later.† And Cassie believed her. If Diana said it would be taken care of, it would be taken care of. In the car, all Cassie could do was stare at a strand of long, shining hair falling over the emergency brake. It was like sunlight-colored silk. Or sunlight-and-moonlight colored, rather. For an instant, in the back of Cassie’s mind, a thought popped up about someone else who had hair that was more than one color, but when she grasped after it, it was gone. She didn’t quite dare to touch the strand of hair, although she wanted to see if it felt like silk too. Instead she tried to listen to what Diana was saying. â€Å"†¦ and I don’t know what gets into Faye sometimes. She just doesn’t think. She doesn’t realize what she’s doing.† Cassie’s eyes slid cautiously up to Diana’s face. In her opinion, Faye knew exactly what she was doing. But she didn’t say anything – they were pulling up to the pretty Victorian house. â€Å"Come on,† Diana said, jumping out. â€Å"Let’s get you cleaned up before you go home.† Cleaned up? Cassie found out what she meant when Diana led her into an old-fashioned bathroom on the second floor. Soot stained her gray sweater, her hands, her jeans. Her hair was a mess. Her face was smudged with black and striped with tears. She looked like a war orphan. â€Å"I’ll lend you some clothes while we get yours clean. And you can get clean in this.† Diana was bustling around, running hot water into a claw-footed bathtub, adding something that smelled sweet and bubbled. She put out towels, soap, shampoo, all with a speed that bewildered Cassie. â€Å"Throw your clothes outside when you get undressed. And you can put this on afterward,† she said, hanging a fluffy white bathrobe on a hook on the door. â€Å"Okay, you’re set.† She disappeared, and Cassie was left staring at the shut door. She looked at the slightly steamy mirror, then at the bathtub. She felt cold and achy inside. Her muscles were trembling from tension. The hot, sweet-scented water looked perfect, and when she climbed in and it rose around her, she let out an involuntary sigh of bliss. Oh, it was lovely. Just right. She lay and basked for a while, letting the heat soak into her bones and the light, flowery smell fill her lungs. It seemed to clear the last tired cobwebs from her head and refresh her. She took a washcloth and scrubbed the grime off her face and body. The shampoo smelled sweet too. When she finally got out of the tub and wrapped herself in the big white terrycloth robe, she was clean, and warm, and more relaxed than she could remember being in weeks. She still could scarcely believe this was happening, but she felt filled with light. The bathroom was old-fashioned, but not in an ugly way, she decided. Pretty towels and jars of colored bath salts and what looked like potpourri made it nice. She slipped on the soft white slippers Diana had left and padded into the hall. The door opposite was ajar. Hesitantly she knocked, pushed it open. Then she stopped on the threshold. Diana was sitting on a window seat, head bent over Cassie’s gray sweater on her lap. Above her, in the window, prisms were hanging. The sun was striking them so that little triangles of rainbow fell in the room: bands of violet and green and orangy-red. They were sliding across the walls, dancing on the floor, on Diana’s arms and hair. It was as if she were sitting in the middle of a kaleidoscope. No wonder the window had sparkled, Cassie thought. Diana looked up and smiled. â€Å"Come in. I was just getting the soot out of your sweater.† â€Å"Oh. It’s cashmere – â€Å" â€Å"I know. It’ll be all right.† Diana took some book that had been open on the window seat and put it into a large cabinet that stood against one wall. Cassie noticed she locked the cabinet afterward. Then she went out with the sweater. Cassie looked at the window seat curiously. She didn’t see any spot remover. Only a packet of potpourri and what looked like part of somebody’s rock collection. The room itself was lovely. It managed to combine pretty, antique-looking furniture with modern things, as if the past and the present existed side by side in harmony here. The hangings on the bed were pale blue with a delicate trailing-vine design, light and airy. On the walls, instead of movie posters or pinups, there were some kind of art prints. The whole place looked – classy. Elegant and artistic, but comfortable, too. â€Å"Do you like those? The prints?† Cassie turned to find that Diana had noiselessly entered the room again. She nodded, wishing she could think of something intelligent to say to this girl who seemed so far above her. â€Å"Who’s in them?† she asked, hoping that wasn’t something she ought to know already. â€Å"They’re Greek gods. Or Greek goddesses, actually. This one’s Aphrodite, the goddess of love. See the cherubs and doves around her?† Cassie gazed at the woman in the picture, who was reclining on a sort of couch, looking beautiful and indolent. Something about the pose – or maybe it was the exposed bosom – reminded her of Suzan. â€Å"And this is Artemis.† Diana moved to another print. â€Å"She was goddess of the hunt. She never married, and if any man saw her bathing, she had him ripped to pieces by her dogs.† The girl in this picture was slim and lithe, with toned-looking arms and legs. She was kneeling, aiming a bow. Her dark hair fell in tumbled waves down her back, and her face was intense, challenging. Deborah sometimes looked like that, Cassie thought. Then she glanced at the next print and started. â€Å"Who’s that?† â€Å"That’s Hera, queen of the gods. She could be – jealous.† Cassie bet she could. The young woman was tall and proud, with an imperious set to her chin. But it was her eyes that held Cassie. They seemed almost to blaze from the print, full of passion and will and danger. Like a crouching jungle cat†¦ Shuddering uncontrollably, Cassie turned away. â€Å"Are you all right?† Diana asked. Cassie nodded, gulping. Now that she was safe, it was all coming back. Not only the events of the last day, but of the entire last week. All the hurt, all the humiliation. The hanged doll in her locker, the scene in the cafeteria. The rubber snake. The game of keep away with her backpack†¦ â€Å"Cassie?† A hand touched her shoulder. It was too much. Cassie turned around and flung herself into Diana’s arms, bursting into tears. â€Å"It’s okay. It’ll all be okay, really. Don’t worry†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Diana held her and patted her back. All the tears Cassie hadn’t been able to release in front of her mother or grandmother were flooding out now. She clung to Diana and sobbed like a little child. And it was just like the images she’d had in the library. As if she were seven years old and her mother was comforting her. Somehow, Diana made Cassie feel that everything was going to be all right. Eventually, she slowed to hiccups and sniffles. Finally she lifted her head. â€Å"Tell you what,† Diana said, handing a Kleenex to Cassie. â€Å"Why don’t you stay here for dinner? My dad won’t be back until late tonight – he’s a lawyer. I can call a couple of friends and we can order a pizza. How does that sound?† â€Å"Oh – great,† Cassie said, biting her lip. â€Å"Really great.† â€Å"You can put on these clothes until yours dry – they’ll be a little big, but not too bad. Come downstairs when you’re ready.† Diana paused, her emerald-green eyes on Cassie’s face. â€Å"Is something wrong?† â€Å"No†¦ not really, but†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Cassie floundered, then shook her head angrily. â€Å"It’s only†¦ it’s just†¦ why are you being so nice to me?† she burst out. It all still seemed like a dream. Diana stared at her a minute, then she smiled with her eyes, although her lips remained grave. â€Å"I don’t know†¦ I guess I think you’re nice and you deserve it. I can work on trying to be rotten if you want.† Cassie shook her head again, but not angrily this time. She felt her own lips twitch. â€Å"And†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Diana was looking off into space now, her clear green eyes distant. â€Å"We’re all sisters, you know.† Cassie caught her breath. â€Å"Are we?† she whispered. â€Å"Yes,† Diana said firmly, still looking far away. â€Å"Yes, we are. In spite of everything.† Then her face changed, and she looked at Cassie. â€Å"You can call your mom from this line,† she said, indicating a phone. â€Å"I’ll go down and order the pizza.† And just like that, she was gone. How to cite The Secret Circle: The Initiation Chapter Eight, Essay examples

Cost Accounting †Classification of Costs free essay sample

Cost accounting refers to a process of accumulating, recording, classifying and analyzing all costs incurred at various levels of production. The purpose of cost accounting is manifold. It provides a final selling price, suggests the best possible course of action where maximum savings are possible and a strategy for future. Cost accounting is also constructive in comparing the input and output results that ultimately aids the management to arrive at a financial statement. It includes tangible as well as the intangible expenses. Let us look at the various methods of cost classification. 1. By element- On the basis of element, cost is divided into three categories- a)Material- It is one of the most important aspects of production. It is also referred to as raw material or tangible items. Almost 50% of the cost comes under material. For example- cotton, wood, rubber, etc. b)Labour- Obtaining finished products from raw material solely depends on labour. We will write a custom essay sample on Cost Accounting – Classification of Costs or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Cost of labour is calculated in the form of wages and salaries. Expenses- Expenses other than material and labour come under the category of ‘expenses’. For example- rent, insurance, etc. 2. By nature/traceability- On the basis of traceability, cost is divided into two categories- a)Direct/traceable cost- It refers to those costs that are easily traceable or identifiable. For example- wages, salary, cost of timber, cotton, etc. b)Indirect/untraceable cost- It refers to those costs that are not easily traceable of identifiable. For example- lubricants, cotton wastes, insurance, etc. 3. By function- On the basis of function, cost may be divided into four categories- a)Production cost- Cost incurred in obtaining finished goods from raw material is referred to as the production cost. b)Administration cost- It includes the cost of strategizing policies, leading the organization, and carrying out the operations. c)Selling cost- The cost incurred on marketing for promotion of sales is called selling cost. d)Distribution cost- The cost incurred on distribution of finished products is called distribution cost. 4. By behavior- On the basis of behavior, cost can be divided into two categories- a)Fixed cost- Fixed cost is the cost that remains the same irrespective of the size of production. For example- rent, insurance, etc. b)Variable cost- Variable cost is the cost that changes with respect to change in the size of production. For example- material, wages, etc. 5. By control controllability- On the basis of controllability, cost can be divided into two categories- a)Controllable- Cost that can be controlled by the members of an undertaking b)Uncontrollable- Cost that cannot be controlled by the members of an undertaking 6. By normality- On the basis of normality, cost is divided into two categories- a)Normal cost- It is the cost incurred on regular day to day activities b)Abnormal cost- It is the cost incurred on abnormal events taking place during business operations 7. By time- On the basis of time, cost is divided into two categories- a)Historical cost- It is the cost incurred in the past b)Predetermined cost- It is the cost that is determined before the production process is completed

Labor Economy Generating Factors

Factors that affect labor supply Several factors affect the labor supply as evident in the survey results. Reflectively, equilibrium and transitional wage differentials offer a valid explanation for the elicit labor differential persistence in the labor markets as part of the supply constraint. Reflectively, homogeneous jobs and perfect competition within the labor market are critical in the labor supply matrix.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Labor Economy Generating Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ideally, workers will have limited option apart from changing jobs until optimal satisfaction is achieved through the creation of a theoretical balance characterized by identical wage payment across same industry. In this process, the labor supply is disrupted. However, in reality labor wage rate variances are persistent in both empirical and casual rates despite the theoretical balance. These variances are attributed to inconsistencies between casual and empirical wage rate reviews. Besides, nonwage factors, such as fringe benefits, job location, job status, wage advancement prospects, earnings regularity, and risk of death or injury in a job have substantial influence on supply decisions since they form part of wage differentials. Consequently, their intrinsic influence forms part of the overall wage differentials that are part of the generated labor supply effect. Market information placement is presented as another vital determinant of labor supply. Market information influences the behavior of the labor market, its efficiency, and optimal operation. Thus, imperfect and costly market labor information is a major contributor towards persistent labor differentials at the micro and macro levels of the labor market. Besides, when their effect is long term, then the outcome may assume the form of long-lasting differential wage imbalances that are transitioning from a period to anoth er. Consequently, wage structure immobilities such as institutional, geographic, and institutional may last longer than usual. Reflectively, these immobilities are clear indicators of differences in wage rates within a similar industry for workers with the same educational level, skills, and experience as indicated in the survey results. On the other hand, substitution and income effects also influence labor supply. In the process of changing occupation, the underlying decision science is the overall effect of the same on capital structure of a worker. Generally, the overall expected outcome is measured as a ratio of the total cost of investment on the relocation. For instance, transportation expenses, psychic costs, and forgone income during transition form part of the cost matrix in labor supply as indicated in the responses collected. Existence of patterns of wage differentials in the sample There is a consistent wage differential pattern in the sample. Specifically, this is as a result of mobility and their influence on labor market variables. The two major types of mobility are categorized as occupational geographical mobility. Reflectively, occupational mobility depends on labor units and the profession of the worker.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a variation of the market labor mobility, efficiency in ‘allocative’ contributors is significant in balancing the distribution of labor units between low and high employment values as part of the wage differential matrix. Reflectively, the value of marginal product determines the regulatory effect on perfect competition and wage differential. The two components will swing until the regulator balances for employments sharing self efficiency on ‘allocativeness’ as part of the wage differential. However, this interaction holds in a labor market with perfect knowledge of all determinant variables operating in a similar employment industry. Due to similar experience, skills, and educational attainment, the wage rates are likely to balance as the regulator moderates the two determining variables in a constant mobility parameter. Despite the perfect regulation, several interacting externalities are identified as determinants of efficiency ease. As a result, these externalities are associated with minimization of gains realized on efficiency metrics. The worst case occurs when pecuniary externalities interaction with ‘allocative efficiency’ further minimize these gains. In different labor markets, wage differentials generate a recurring capital and product flows that interact concurrently to initiate an equalized balance on wages in the long term. However, the wage differentials are inconsequential, especially at the macro level of the labor market as indicated in the table below for each age group.      age   Wage Average as a rat io Age group 18 – 22 5    23 – 28 5    29 – 33 5    34 – 38 4.8    39 – 43 5    44 – 48 4.9    49 – 53 5.1 Reasons for wage differentials As noted in the survey, presence of unions offers solace to workers on bargaining for wages. Adopting efficient contract model, labor unions offer collective bargain opportunity for the two parties over employment level and wage rates. Since it is a flexible model, both the principal and the agent are given an opportunity to balance their offers before striking a compromise deal. For instance, the union can lower supply of labor, increase demand for labor and negotiate an equilibrium wage bargain for its members. Skills and experience are as important as the nonwage factors on wage differentials. In the ideal scenario, when there is a decisive crisis involving the review of wages in a production line, a rational employer would opt for increasing wages paid to highly skil led workers an employee retention strategy. The rate of wage increase will be higher for the highly skilled employers than what the low skilled counterparts eventually get as evidenced in the survey response. Efficiency of wage theories offers a better explanation of the above scenario.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Labor Economy Generating Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These theories are based on the same notion that the higher turnover of labor units translates into higher wages paid, even though the ratio may not be proportional in perfect and imperfect labor markets. Besides, labor environments with limited quantifiable variables for reviewing performance are a recipe for high wages given to employees since the principal may not be in a position to measure efficiency of each labor unit against wage compensation. As noted in the survey, heterogeneous workers are responsible for the continuou s wage disparities for the group to compete on the nonwage aspects of work within varying stock capitals that are of human nature. Consequently, the quantifiable result would be unbalanced labor preferences within differing market consistency on every unit of labor. This is explained by the hedonic theory of wages to classify this form of interaction between workers that have wage preference variances when interacted with ideal job amenities of nonwage nature. The most likely effect would be the standard labor market’s inability to churn wage differentials that are sustainable for employees sharing similar capital stocks of human nature and counterparts with varying capital stocks of human nature. As a result, wage differential is skewed towards market demand. In summary, wage differences exist across employment due to job characteristics, such as compensating wage differentials, human capital, labor market discrimination, labor union, and incentive pay. Summary of Findings Question Data analysis   Explanation 1 Sex Female 19       Male 11                2 Age group 18 – 22 5       23 – 28 15       29 – 33 5       34 – 38 0       39 – 43 1       44 – 48 3       49 – 53 1                4 Marital status Unmarried 21       Married 9                5 Do you have children Yes 2       No 28                6 Level of education High school 6       Junior college 8       4yr college 13       Postgraduate 3                7 Are you a student Yes 14       No 16                8 Industry Service industry 27       Manufacturing industry 3                10 Employment status Part time 15       Full time 15                11 Number of hours worked ≠¤40 23       40 7                12 Wages ≠¤1000 12       1000wage2000 6       2000 12                13 Nature of job Dangerous 9 21    Risky 6 24    Undesirable 1 29             17 Training for the job Yes 16       No 14                18 Unionized Yes 3       No 17                19 Wage differential Yes 4       No 16                20 Other benefits with the job Yes 18       No 12                21 Opportunity for wage increase/promotion Yes 18       No 12                23 More wage Increase hours of work 17 To make more money    Same hours of work 9 Nature of job does not allow time adjustment    Decrease hours of work 4 More time for school, leisure and family             25 Less wage Increase hours of work 2 To make more money    Same hours of work 6 Nature of job does not allow time adjustment à ‚   Decrease hours of work 17 Less stress at work    Quit job 5                Theoretical Framework Justification Human Capital Theory Fringe benefits and wage earnings are identified as the main components of compensation summation. However, fringe benefits are apportioned a larger share in the total compensation matrix due to the fact that their influence was experiencing a consistent growth over the last decade in the labor market. These fringe benefits are classified as social security, unemployment compensation and employee’s compensation for every unit of labor given as indicated in the human capital theory. For instance, the wage differentials for different age groups studied average at 5. Since fringe benefits are rarely affected by age, the existing wage differential is negligible. In classification, these fringe benefits assume the form of insurance benefits, paid leave, and legally acquired benefits to a worker for every unit of labor delivere d against the revenue realized. Besides these, retirement benefits and savings are included in the summation of the fringe benefits accrued by a worker.Advertising Looking for term paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Labor Market Discrimination Theory Type and form of fringe benefits are never universal. Rather, they are influenced by the type of industry in which labor operates, ration and occupational groups as indicated in the labor market discrimination theory. This is due to the fact that governments and other agencies have introduced laws and regulations aimed at pushing for higher and reliable compensation. In most instances, the blue collar employees have a larger share of the legalities, construed benefits than their counterparts in white collar jobs. As indicated in the survey, those in white collar employment earn more than those in blue collar. On average, the white collar employees earn $2500 as compared to the blue collar employees earning an average of $1000 per month. Job Characteristics Theory In a bid to extrapolate this relationship, the Job Characteristics/Compensating Wage Differentials theory is a certain reason for the experienced growth over the sample space. Reflectively , the variables interacting within the parameters of this theory are leisure and income within the normal indifference curve. Consequently, the resulting interaction becomes flexible to different bundles of budget constraints that might be present at each level of computation. Further, this theory asserts that indifference curve is a product of various fringe benefits and wage rates that interact simultaneously to yield same utility level for each worker. When all other factors are held constant, higher swing of the indifference curve indicates higher levels of utility. Irrespective of the inclination of the indifference curve, it is apparent that levels of tax advantage determine the resultant fringe benefit accrued as shown in the survey. Specifically, to support this notion, the benefits accrued from pension plans are taxable upon confirmation of receivership by an employee. Besides, the principle, dividends and interest which are part of the summation of pensions, are best achie ved through pretax accumulation of the fringe benefits as indicated in the survey. On average jobs that demand higher skills attract more wages than those that demand low skills. The highest paid participant is the post graduate worker in a power plant who earns $7000 per month. Incentive pay theory The need for intrinsic substitution as a component of the decision science aimed at managing the fringe benefits are peculiar in labor economics. In such case, the foregone alternative would be forfeiting leisure related savings for health and pension needs which are characterized as basic for every worker. The adoption of this thought is influenced by the fact that basic needs are more critical than the secondary needs in the matrix of fringe benefits. Besides, the long term effects of purchasing the basic needs are greater than those of opting to acquire secondary needs upfront. Tax advantages to employers, scale of economies, and efficiency are major factors that led to the growth of fringe benefits. Therefore, as fringe benefits increase, the workers’ utility increased in the same ratio. In drawing the curve, the initial assumptions consist in the fact that the market operates within a normal profit margin in total employment and product market as part of the overall compensation effect per worker. Generally, substantial changes for each cluster of wages and benefits are negligible within the ‘employer’s isoprofit curve’. The same relationship functions in the Wage-Fringe optimum. As performance and pay interact in the labor market, there is a proportional relationship between performance and pay for each unit of labor given to a firm (principal) against the compensation offered as explained in the incentive pay theory. As indicated in the sample, those in marketing and technical fields earn more incentive than those in normal fields. The unbalance relationship between pay and performance may result in the principal – agent pro blem which might culminate in under utilization of labor units since the agent (employee) may opt to increase leisure through reduced efforts at work. In order to avoid this unwanted scenario, the theory proposes different forms of incentive compensation such as tournament pay, royalties, profits, and bonus plans. In most cases, employers control these incentives and limit them as a fraction of the total revenue after factoring the cost of production and each labor unit. When implementing these incentive plans, it is important to concentrate on personal performance bonuses as opposed to team bonuses, which promote a joyride attitude among workers since the process has no specific measure for distributing incentives. The firm can also opt for equity compensation under which employees are encouraged to take ownership of the firm in the form of stocks as supported by the incentive pay theory. Labor Union When implanting compensation plans, it is important for the firm to consider the e fficiency of each labor unit against the wage payments. These units should be quantified in line with performance targets and revenue accrued. In order to achieve this, introduction of regulatory agents, such as supervisors who work alongside the employees may be beneficial. As a result, the fractional reduction of labor cost per unit of the budget of an employer is referred to as the resultant wage efficiency metrics. This matrix is dependent on homogeneous labor inputs wages at market-clearing parameters and external forces like labor unions. As explained in the labor union theory, this agent often influence wage prices to be very sticky downwards. In the sample, the unionized employees reported stable income and structured employment contracts as pull factors into their respective fields. Conclusion In a perfectly skewed labor market, wages are supposed to be determined by the cost of production and total output. Transitional and equilibrium wage differentials explain the persist ence of eliciting labor differential. It is apparent that homogeneous jobs attract perfect competition in the labor markets. Therefore, workers would change jobs until a theoretical balance is created to make wages paid across identical. Interestingly, in comparing the casual and empirical wage rates, labor theories adopt an assumption that different wage rates exist and are generally persistent despite equilibrium due to factors such as the variances between empirical examination and casual review of wage rates. As identified in the survey results, nonwage factors such as fringe benefits, job location, job status, wage advancement prospects, earnings regularity, and risk of death or injury in a job have a substantial influence on supply decisions since they form part of wage differentials. As a result, their influence consists in determining the rate of wage differentials for generating the overall effect on the labor supply. The effects of market information on wage differentials are indicated as either positive or negative in the survey results. Reflectively, costly and imperfect market information is largely responsible for the existence of persistent wage differentials in labor market. In an ideal labor market, these imperfections and cost burdening information is a ladder towards the extreme wage rate ranges since their operation in the market is independent on the normal wage differentials. When their effect lasts longer than usual, the effect would translate into long-lasting wage differentials of a transitional nature. This term paper on Labor Economy Generating Factors was written and submitted by user Ella Salinas to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

marijuana and brain damage essays

marijuana and brain damage essays Though marijuana is illegal, it is the most widely used illicit drug in most developed societies today; over fifty percent of people will use it at some point in their lifetime (Hubbard, Franco, Onaivi 1999). Its peak usage occurred in the 1960s, but is still at a high today. To many peoples dislike, cannabis actually has legitimate medical purposes. Many anti-drug messages provide people with exaggerated claims concerning the undesirable affects of the drug. Moreover, its recent legalization in ten states, for medicinal purposes, has emphasized the need to understand and know the long-term effects on the central nervous system. Pope and Yurgelun-Todd(1996) conducted a blind comparison among college students of regular marijuana users versus infrequent users. Their goal was to determine whether frequent marijuana use can be associated with residual neuropsychological effects. Their findings suggested that although marijuana use may produce some effect in memory functions, that the more significant effects are in the attention-executive system. While the recall memory functions stay reasonably unaltered. Also reported by them is a show of impairments in mental flexibility, abstraction and in some aspects of learning, in frequent users more then less frequent users. Most of the cognitive damage is not big when compared to normal cognitive variability in normal individuals. These impairments would not cause a heavy smoker to stand out from the crowd. This does not mean that they dont have some sort of significance; theoretically speaking, they could still have detrimental effects on a students academic performance. Even though alcohol is legal and marijuana is illegal, Wayne Hall and Nadia Solowij(1998) have found that long-term heavy use of marijuana does not cause the harsh impairment of memory, attention, and cognitive function that can be found in chronic abuse of alcohol. But, the lon...

Blood and Blood Product Safety and the Role of Government

One million Americans are infected with HIV. One in six of these people do not know that they are infected. In the 1980s, about 8,000 hemophiliacs were infected with HIV and hepatitis due to blood supply infections. Companies that sell drugs used to manage blood coagulation of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Disease Control Center (CDC), Government, National Hemophilia Foundation (NHF), and hemophilia patients I know that the factor is contaminated. Either way, due to the high price of these products, they still sell it. The health of the United States depends on blood and technology. Blood and blood products play an important and irreplaceable role in medicine. Every year 5 million people receive erythrocytes, blood coagulation factors, or blood transfusions from plasma products. Traditionally, the technical aspects of blood have long been dedicated to improving blood safety, collection and storage. The system is not perfect, and some experts have expressed concern that r eaction to Jika is too slow and too cautious. Finding the right balance between speed and accuracy is always a problem and it is worth reviewing in future articles. However, from the viewpoint of winter of 2017, we can see that confirmed case of infection by transfusion has not been confirmed in the United States. In the past Prior to blood transfusion, many measures were taken to ensure the quality, compatibility and safety of blood products. In 2012, 70% of countries formulate domestic blood policies, 62% of which enact specific laws covering transfusion safety and quality. Blood transfusions usually use blood sources: themselves (autologous blood transfusion) or other people (allogeneic or allogeneic transfusions). The latter is more general than the former. To use other people's blood, you need to donate blood first. Blood is most often injected intravenously into whole blood and collected with anticoagulants. In developed countries, donors are usually anonymous to recipients, b ut products in blood banks can always be individually tracked through donation, testing, separation of ingredients, storage, and delivery to recipients throughout the cycle .

IT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

IT - Essay Example Lastly, we shall discuss their roles in mobile companies. Reliable sources have been referred for the information and figures that have been included in the study. Google and Apple are two companies that have created an explosion in the field of mobile phones. It is worthwhile to understand the peculiarities of the operating systems of these two companies. Both have their own advantages and disadvantages. It depends on the user which one to choose according to his/her requirements. Google’s Android is basically a mobile operating system that is open-source in nature. It allows the developers to adapt the software according to their requirements. The developers can do this by using their own codes or by using ‘C’ (although it is not approved by Google yet it serves the purpose). Android phones support an ample range of mobile technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, etc. But one of the main features is that it allows deaf and blind people to operate their mobile phones with much ease. High-end Android phones allow multi-user settings on a single phone. It means that multiple users can use the same phone but with their privacy intact. All users can have their separate login password. In addition to the usual features of Apple mobile phones such as multi-touch gestures, media library, store-kit, cameras, graphics, compass, etc., the latest iOS technology has introduced some new features that are enlisted below: Now Apple has launched its own maps on its mobile phones. This new feature allows the user to view maps (in 3D), traffic updates and more information. An interesting feature that has been introduced by Apple is the ‘Flyover’ that allows the users to select a metropolitan city and enjoy an aerial view. The improved version of Siri can now recognize more languages and can answer questions based on varied subjects such as sports, films, eateries, etc. the users can also post comments on their social networking websites. If talks with car

Transition Economy of Brazil Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Transition Economy of Brazil - Research Paper Example The success story of Hungary, Russia, Poland and China shows that former communist countries can create growth from the ruins and limitations of socialism. In Poland, a decentralized and comprehensive approach to the twin problems of bank and enterprise restructuring proved effective in transforming its economy and establishing the foundations for sustained economic growth. During the 1991-97 period, nonperforming loans declined and the number of creditworthy enterprises rose substantially. As for Russia, the largest post-communist transition economy of them all, it endeavored to establish strong fiscal and monetary controls as its bedrock of macroeconomic stability. These served as levers to check imbalances in public sector financing. Russia learned its lesson well from an earlier financial crisis when the unwieldy growth of soft loans skewed its market (Dunn, 2006). The non-collateralized loans had been liberally granted to state-owned enterprises that could not afford to pay them back. All the transition economies realized early the importance of privatization to dismantle the state monopolies that characterized the former communist countries. In Brazil, vital industries and services like oil, gas, telecommunications and postal service used to be under state monopolies. A series of constitutional amendments were taken up in 1995 and 1996 to do away with the distinctions in nationalized and foreign companies, thus effectively lifting the government stranglehold on these industries.

5 Important School and Statutory Framework Essay Example for Free

5 Important School and Statutory Framework Essay Thousands of Muslims were becoming followers of Guru Hargobind Sahib Ji. Khawaja Raushan was a very respected Muslim Faqir with thousands of people visiting him to pay him respect and get boons. However Khawaja Raushan’s own mind was restless, he was in search of a true Guru. Once a friend told him about Guru Ji, Khawaja Raushan reached Kiratpur and met Guru JI. When he heard Guru Ji’s he was so impressed that he decided to stay at Kiratpur. He became an admirer of Guru Sahib; he started doing Seva of Guru Ji’s horses. One day Guru Ji went out for riding his horse, Khawaja Raushan ran behind Guru Ji in Bairag. See more: Sleep Deprivation Problem Solution Speech Essay He ran more than a mile after Guru Ji, who then dismounted his horse and embraced Khawaja Raushan with great love. Guru Ji then gave Khawaja Raushan Charan Amrit and Naam as well as spiritual Gian and sent him to Doaba to preach Sikhi.Khawaja Raushan was going from one village to another for preaching Sikhi, one day he met Sayyad Jaani Shah who was wandering in search of bliss. Jaani Shah had met many Sadhus and Faqirs but could not get spiritual Gian from anyone. Khawaja Raushan told him he should go to Kiratpur to achieve your aim. Firstly Jaani Shah did not believe him but when Khawaja Raushan told his story he was determined to go. When he reached Kiratpur and sat in front of the door of Guru Ji’s house and cried loudly â€Å"Janni Ko Jaani Milaa Do (Let Jaani meet his dear one )†.

Stereotypes in Our Day Out Essay -- Our Day Out Willy Russell Stereoty

Stereotypes in Our Day Out Can Willy Russell be accused of using stereotypes as a means of putting his opinions forward? Throughout the play; ‘Our Day Out’, written by Willy Russell, there is a constant use of stereotypes portrayed in the characters. Stereotypes are standardised characters or a fixed idea of something. Willy Russell used stereotyping as an effective way of putting his opinions forward because he could develop his initial ideas for characters to raise awareness of what Liverpool was like in the 1970s. In my opinion Willy Russell wanted to show the general life of many children in Liverpool in the 1970s and also to show that stereotypes create false views of certain people and are harmful in general. In the text, the main characters are children and teachers in 1970S Liverpool. Teachers are often stereotyped anyway; people presume that they are strict and disliked or the opposite. This contrast is shown with the two characters Mr Briggs, who is rather strict and Mrs Kay who is not. In the play Mr Briggs is often shouting at the children or telling them off: â€Å"Never mind what for, just do what you’re told, lad.† This emphasises the point that he is stern. There are no points in the text where Mrs Kay has this attitude directly towards the children. The children in the play are also stereotyped because they live in a rough area and don’t have many opportunities- because of the fact that they live in Liverpool. In the play the children swear and steal, suggesting that they are somewhat deprived; they break the law and are impolite as they don’t know any better and have been brought up in a way which it is natural to do so. They are underprivileged as when they encounter animals at the ... ... he is very caring. I feel that Willy Russell uses stereotypes as a means of putting his opinions forward because stereotypes are so powerful and would make his opinions clear without directly linking them to him. They also make the text more understandable for the reader and intended audience. As a final point, I feel that Willy Russell uses stereotypes to no only make his opinions known but also to show that stereotypes are very powerful and maybe even deter people from using them as they can limit a persons mind, if, for example a child had been told they wouldn’t get a good job it may stop them from trying. Therefore Willy Russell does use stereotypes to put forward his opinions and may also use them to make people think carefully before they make presumptions about someone because of their age, race, job, wealth, beliefs or even their background.

Religious Tradition Depth Study †Christianity Essay

Significant People and Ideas 1. The contribution to Christianity of ONE significant person OR school of thought, other than Jesus, drawn from: Martin Luther Explain the contribution to the development and expression of Christianity of ONE significant person OR school of thought, other than Jesus, drawn from: Martin Luther Faith alone, grace alone and scripture alone He was born in 1483 in Germany, a German monk, priest and University Professor in Theology. Led way for the reformation in 1517 by nailing his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. Luther’s Theses’ challenged church corruption particularly the doctrine of indulgences as well as the practices relating to the authority of the Pope. The invention of the printing press allowed people to read his Theses’ on a wide spread basis. His contribution to Christianity led to the development of his own denomination within Christianity: the formation of the Lutheran church in 1530. After posting his 95 Theses, the pope ordered Luther the bull of Excommunication in 1520. However, he gained support from many Germans. His posting of the Disputation questioned the authority of the Church and Pope through academic discussion of the legitimacy of indulgences – was damned as a heretic. He made the Ten commandments, the Apostles Creed, the Lords Prayer, baptism and the Last Supper all easy to understand through his writing of the Large Catechism in 1529. It has earned a reputation as a model of clear religious teaching, as did his translation of the Bible to make it accessible to everyday Germans. His motives have shaped the history of Christianity, changed the expression of Christianity. Without the clarification from him and reforming of basic principles, corruption would still riddle Christianity. The reformation changed Christianity by causing questioning, reflection and renewal which  resulted in a more vibrant and personal faith for Christians. It is his writings that show his contribution in a simplified manner. 2. The effect of that person OR school of thought on Christianity Analyse the impact of this person OR school of thought on Christianity The most obvious and major effect of Luther’s efforts to reform the Church was the split or Reformation which occurred in Western Christianity dividing it into Catholics and Protestants and resulting in centuries of religious intolerance, often accompanied by wars, violence and bloodshed. Division did not only occur between Protestants and Catholics but, as other Protestant sects developed, dissension and disunity occurred amongst them also. Luther spoke up when he saw a wrong being in the Church. He didn’t set out to challenge the Christian belief system, but he was concerned that people were being cheated by greed, getting the wrong idea about God’s grace. He caused questioning, reflection and renewal which resulted in a more vibrant and personal faith for Christians It was his speaking out that influenced the Council of Trent in 1545 to reform the ways of the Church. His thought that salvation may only be achieved through faith alone has remained an important factor to the Christian faith today. Faith alone can also take way in charitable works, almsgiving, and obeying the gospel teachings. He believed the Church was not needed for salvation, he questioned its relevance in the process of salvation – the only thing that was needed for life as a Christian. He believed the church was irrelevant as it placed a distance between itself and the people, there was minimal contact to the worshippers, the co ngregation could not relate to the teachings of the Church. He believed in the fundamental teachings of Christ which is that salvation is an act of grace by God, and only acceptance and faith was needed. Not only did Luther believe, but he supported his belief with action. He accepted the grace of God not just as a process, but as all that a Christian needed. It was not something that could be bought or sold by the Church. He exhibited bravery and courage in disagreeing with the Papal authorities. He used his  gifts to further his beliefs. He presented his beliefs through words and hymns and in his sermons and actions. He was active in thought as an evangelist for this faith. Luther’s impact on Christianity is well known. Protestantism is also well-known with its beginnings in the Reformation and owes its birth to Martin Luther. Lutheranism got its foundations from Luther’s â€Å"Babylonian Captivity† rendering all the sacraments but baptism and eucharist, irrelevant. Luther’s impact changed the way Christianity was divided. Instead of just the Western and Eastern Churches, he formed Protestantism, which split the Western Church. His writing let his church allow the marriage of clergy, singing of the congregation and the democratic nature of the Church. Martin Luther was born in 1483 in Wittenberg in Germany and he was a German monk, priest and University Professor in Theology. Martin Luther was a significant person who made a large contribution to Christianity. Martin Luther led the Reformation in 1517 by nailing his 95 Theses (his attitudes or objections against the church) to the door of the Cathedral in Wittenberg, Germany. Luther’s theses’ challenged church corruption particularly the doctrine of indulgences as well as the practices relating to the authority of the Pope. The invention of the printing press allowed people to read his Theses’ – thus his writings spread quickly around Saxony. His contribution to Christianity led to the development of his own denomination within Christianity – the formation of the Lutheran church in 1530. Martin Luther was a renowned and well-known person in Christianity for his contribution to Christianity – nailing his 95 Theses onto the door of a Cathedral in Wittenberg, Germany. He led the Reformation in 1517 and influenced other reformers of the time. Martin Luther was a person who was not afraid to speak out against the church; he was not afraid to challenge the authority of the church or the Pope. After his nailing of his 95 Theses and burning the Papal bill, the Pope excommunicated (expelled) him from the church. Martin Luther gained support from many Germans, mainly the German Princes and the wealthy middle class. Martin Luther created a massive impact  on the development of Christianity as his objections and contributions to Christianity led to the reformation on 1517 and also led to the formation of the Lutheran Church which was established in 1530. Today, there are many Lutheran followers worldwide due to the impact of his development of Christianity. In Australia, the majority of Lutheran adherents live in South Australia where the German population of Australia live. The Lutheran church is part of the Protestant denomination in Christianity. Therefore through Martin Luther’s contributions to the development of Christianity, he has clearly had a large impact as there are now around 300 million Protestant adherents worldwide who can thank their main founder Martin Luther for the creation and spread of Protestant Churches worldwide. Martin Luther is one of the most famous/important figures in the history of Christianity and has had more books written about him than any other Christian except for Jesus. Martin Luther was one of the catalysts and instigators of the Reformation in Christianity. â€Å"The Reformation changed Christianity by causing questioning, reflection and renewal which resulted in a more vibrant and personal faith for Protestants and Catholics alike†. Whatever Luther learned he preaches and whatever he preached he printed – thus he published many books on his beliefs and teachings. He also translated the Latin Bible into German so that more Christians could read and interpret the Bible. Therefore through his contributions, he has had a profound impact upon Christianity. Luther founded the Lutheran branch of Protestantism and established the Lutheran church of Germany in 1530. He also limited the 7 sacraments to 2 – Baptism and the Eucharist. Luther also produced the 4 pillar s of the Reformation in the Church – Christ alone, Faith alone, Bible alone and Grace alone. 11 years after his death, Charles V allowed the German Princes to choose whether their states should be Catholic or Lutheran. Ethics 3. ONE of the following areas of ethical teaching in Christianity: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics Describe and explain Christian ethical teachings on environmental ethics Christian biblical tradition provides significant guidance in the field of environmental ethics however, until recent times there has been little done by the Christian Churches in the field of environmental ethics as it has not been a prominent concern for Christians overall. In recent times, there have been many significant statements and other initiatives developed by Church leaders both within Australia and internationally, however, there is still an absence of widespread engagement at the grass roots levels of Church communities. While most Christian communities tacitly recognise the importance of environmental ethics, it is yet to become a major focus of day to day life for most Christians and their local Church communities. Mainstream Christian thinking has, only in recent times, embraced environmental ethics as a prominent issue acknowledging the relationship between humankind and the environment because both are created by God. Both humanity and nature reflect the glory of God and convey the image of God. They also recognize that God commanded human beings to live in fruitful relationship with the earth and that humankind has a requirement of stewardship of the earth e.g. Genesis 2:15 states, â€Å"Then God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till and keep it.† In retrospect, Christians look at the theological work/insights of historical figures/prophetic voices such as Francis of Assisi (patron saint of animals and the environment), Hildegard of Bingen (German abbess, naturalist, philosopher and more) and Pierre Teillhard de Chardin (philosopher, Jesuit priest and paleontologist). In poorer parts of the world, there is considerable engagement of Christian communities on environmental issues. This is because for Christians in these parts of the world environmental degradation is an issue which is affecting them in a very serious and tangible way through a lack of clean drinking water, rising sea levels, damage to crops etc. People in richer countries are largely insulated against these challenges, although it is clear that this insulation is a temporary thing and that within decades more  affluent countries will be faced with similar environmental disasters. In the present climate of increased environmental awareness there remains a wide range of perspectives among the Churches. Liberal members of the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Churches are generally very aware of teaching on environmental ethics and are often active in response to the issues raised. Conservative members of these same denominations are less likely to be engaged in environmental issues in a significant way. Some of the fundamentalist and evangelical Churches have been reluctant to place significant emphasis on environmental concerns as any form of transformative social action is seen as a low priority in comparison to evangelisation in the light of the anticipated return of Jesus and the end of the world. Relationship Mainstream Christian thinking acknowledges that there is a special relationship between humankind and the environment because both humankind and rest of the created world are created by God. They acknowledge that both reflect the glory of God and convey the image of God. They also recognise that God commanded human beings to live in fruitful relationship with the earth and that humankind has a requirement of stewardship of the earth. Challenge Thus, it is evident that there is richness in the tradition of Christian teaching on environmental ethics and a clear rhetoric calling for action in recent times. However, there remains a considerable challenge in education and action to engage significant numbers of local Christian communities in major environmental actions. This challenge is particularly evident in Western industrialised countries where Christian communities enjoy high standards of living which depend on significant and often negligent use of the world’s resources. There are many important theologians and activists who are working in the field of environmental ethics calling on the Churches to act urgently and more decisively in the field of ecology. They are critical of the Churches  for their tardiness in taking serious steps in responding to environmental issues and strongly challenged the Christian tradition as a whole. Examples of these are: Sallie McFague from the liberal protestant tradition McFague is a feminist theologian that sets out to construct a new theology of nature and of God She connects God with the human process rather than distances God from creation which emphasized the need to develop a new metaphor for God which recognises that the world is the physical expression of God not a separate â€Å"product† of God She states, in her novel Life Abundant, that: â€Å"The glory of God is every creature fully alive and, therefore, we live to give God glory by loving the world and everything in it.† Thomas Berry, Catholic theologian born in 1914 was a member of the Passionist Order of Priests Berry espoused a mystical approach to ecology. He has argued that God made the world and therefore God is profoundly related to it and if we lose our sense of the splendor of the natural world then we also lose our sense of the divine Berry suggested that human beings must see themselves in perspective i.e. only existing for about 60,000 years in a cosmos as much as 15,000,000,000 years old the cosmos is to be seen as an ongoing energy event rather than a sudden creation at a specific point in time. He stresses that human beings as creatures are not separate from the rest of creation who can be valued over and against the rest of creation. He says that we need to develop a new creation story (myth) which takes into account our now more developed sense of awareness of the human impact on the environment and the growing sense of profound unity with the environment Matthew Fox was a Catholic theologian (now an Episcopalian) born 1940 He was a member of the Dominican Order of Priests before ultimately being expelled by his order after long running disputes with Rome has now been accepted into the Episcopalian church Fox proposes a mystical approach to the environment known now as Creation Spirituality. He proposes the idea of original blessing i.e. an ancient notion that the cosmos has been continually blessing (bringing life to) human beings since their evolution.  This idea stands in contrast to the idea of original sin which Fox identifies as a very recent idea Sean McDonagh is a Catholic missionary Priest member of the Columban order of Priests worked extensively in the Philippines McDonagh focuses on the relationship between justice and ecology approach is called eco-justice McDonagh identifies the type of greed and exploitation which is at the heart of injustice to be the same factors which are at the heart of environmental degradation. He identifies that significant amounts of environmental degradation take place through the exploitative action of the rich and the practices which are forced upon the poor, particularly in the need to meet debt repayments McDonagh has been a strong critic of the lack of involvement of the Church in environmental issues Sample responses: Identify modern Christian theology in environmental ethics There are a number of emerging Christian theologies about the environment. The theologies are attempts to understand the place of God in a modern society that utilises scientific reasoning to explain creation. The theologians attempt to overcome the distance between human beings and the rest of creation and to include all of a creation in an interconnected and interdependent dynamic. The theologies are a response to the increasing environmental problems and ecological imbalance that exists. The theologies include mystical approaches, eco-feminist theology, creation spirituality and eco-justice perspectives. The individual theologians who are living in the contemporary world are often critical of the Christian Church and its slowness in being proactive about the environmental crisis and for not exercising strong, decisive leadership in environmental ethics. Describe modern Christian theologians’ responses to environmental concerns. A number of Christian theologians have respond ed to environmental concerns amongst them; Thomas Berry and Sallie McFague. Thomas Berry’s theology evolved from a mystical awareness of the cosmos as infinitely older than human beings who are relative newcomers in evolution. Whilst basing his beliefs about the evolution of the cosmos on modern scientific theory he encourages humanity  to envision themselves as part of an ongoing creation event that the creator God is profoundly involved in. He encourages bringing current knowledge of the environmental impact of human beings into a new creation story to heal and restore the planet. Sallie McFague’s eco feminist theology looks at the ways in which patriarchy has dominated women, society and the earth itself and calls for a new more balanced understanding of creation. She evinces a theology of connectedness utilising the Gaia and Chaos theory as ideas that explain the interconnectedness of all creation. She uses metaphors of the earth as the body of God and seeks to overcome the body soul dichotomy caused by the patriarchal mindset of Church f athers. Evaluate the contribution of emerging Christian theology to the environmental ethics. The contribution of emerging Christian theology to environmental ethics is difficult to measure as the Christian Church is diverse and different denominations have a variety of interpretations and understandings of revelation and scripture in relation to the environment. Just as in secular society there are individuals and groups that recognise the urgency of applying ethics to the environment so it is within Christianity. For Christians working in countries where the environment is in crisis and is linked directly to the cycle of poverty of the people the issue of environmental ethics is important. Sean McDonagh’s eco justice theology is one that confronts the materialism of developed countries and challenges Christians to become aware of the immediate and obvious link between exploitation of the environment and greed. Significant practices in the life of adherents 4. ONE significant practice within Christianity drawn from: Baptism Marriage ceremony Saturday/Sunday worship Baptism > is a sacramental water rite which invites and person into the Christian church community. Literal > to wash away with water Figurative > washing away of sin, purification, rebirth, new spiritual life, cleansing of soul Describe ONE significant practice within Christianity drawn from: Baptism Initiation rite Baptism used in most Christian denominations Signifies initiation into the beliefs and practices of the Christian community Has significance as a statement of a person’s beliefs in the Christian tradition Necessary element for salvation Baptism allows Christians to share in the death and resurrection of Christ Cleanses people from their sins The Salvation Army and The Society of Friends (Quakers) are examples of Christian groups which do not practice baptism Infant baptism For the majority of Christians today Baptism carried out when they were infants Common practice in the Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox branches of Christianity Parents and God parents make commitments on behalf of the child Agree to nurture the child in the Christian faith In other Christian groups such as the Baptist and Pentecostal Churches the baptism of infants is not accepted Members would be expected to choose to be baptised as adults having made their own decision to repent and be born again Immersion Idea of baptism stems from the sense of being immersed in water Symbolises being surrounded by and imbued with the beliefs and practices of the Christian community Ritual is usually carried out in the Church Often contained within or celebrated adjacent to the main form of Sunday worship Majority of baptisms celebrated in the Anglican and Catholic branches of Christianity involve the sprinkling or pouring of water on the head of the child In Orthodox Churches the child is immersed briefly in water on three occasions Adults who are baptised in Churches such as Baptist and Pentecostal Churches are often fully immersed in water Various aspects Variety of aspects included in baptism across different denominations Core  elements are the baptism with water and the profession of faith Anglican Sacrament of Baptism Baptism in the Anglican Church may incorporate the rite of Confirmation and/or the rite of Holy Communion. Begins with a gathering hymn, psalm or anthem Priest or Minister greets and welcomes the congregation The Collect of the Day is prayed, followed by the lessons from the Scriptures A sermon is preached The presentation and examination of the candidates takes place Baptismal Covenant is prayed and prayers are offered for the candidates Prayers of thanksgiving and blessing are then prayed over the water Prayers of consecration are prayed over the oils of Chrism The Baptism takes place The Lord’s prayer is prayed A concluding prayer is prayed Catholic Sacrament of Baptism Baptism is often incorporated into the celebration of the Eucharist In particular the celebration of the Easter Vigil Begins with a welcome and greeting from the Priest or Deacon Questioning of the parents and God parents to confirm their wish for Baptism Priest or Deacon and the parents and God parents trace the sign of the cross on the child’s forehead The liturgy of the word follows Includes readings from the bible and a homily from the Priest or Deacon Homily is followed by the rite of exorcism and the anointing with oil Waters of the baptismal font are then blessed Those present make a profession of faith, including a renunciation of sin on behlaf The Baptism follows, usually involving a pouring of water on the baby’s head The child is then clothed in a white baptismal garment Parents and God parents receive a baptismal candle Priest or Deacon prays the prayer of Ephphatha asking that the child’s ears will be open to receive the word of God and that their mouth will be open to proclaim the Gospel The Our Father is then prayed followed by a final  blessing Orthodox Orthodox Churches celebrate the sacrament of Baptism within a wider rite of initiation Also includes Chrismation (anointing) and Eucharist Baptism involves the full immersion of the child three times in the baptismal font The triple immersion parallels the belief in the Trinity Prayers coinciding with the immersion invoke the Father, Son and Spirit Baptism is followed immediately by the anointing of the body with oils and the proclamation of the seal of the Holy Spirit This is known as Chrismation Child receives Eucharist immediately after Adult Baptism All Christian denominations which practice baptism incorporate a rite for the baptism of adults Among the Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox Churches the majority of people are baptised as children Among some Protestant Churches infant baptism is not practiced at all These Churches believe that baptism should be conferred only after a person has made a conscious decision to believe in Jesus Christ Churches such as the Baptist Church and most Pentecostal Churches such as Assemblies of God practice adult baptism Also known as believer baptism Baptism in the sprit Churches which exclusively practice adult or believer baptism generally do not accept the validity of an infant baptism in another Christian denomination Require a second baptism or a confirmation of baptism sometimes referred to as baptism in the Spirit. Baptism is regarded as an ordinance in Baptist Churches It is some that has been ordered or required of them by Jesus as indicated in the bible Baptist tradition In the Baptist tradition, believer baptism would normally be held as part of the Sunday worship service Most Baptist Churches are designed with a  baptismal area to allow for the full immersion of believers Usually at the front of the Church and adjacent to enclosed areas to allow those being prepare by dressing in a baptismal garment and also to change from the wet garment after the baptism The Baptist service often includes a testimony by the person being baptised who publicly declares their faith in Jesus. Pentecostal churches In Pentecostal Churches there are few set patterns or rites Baptism is usually done through full immersion Many Pentecostal groups will carry out baptisms in public places such as beaches, rivers and lakes where full immersion can be practiced May also decide to use a swimming pool for the rite Sample Response (‘Describe’ – 3 Marks): Baptism is a significant practice followed by most Christian denominations. It is used as a rite of initiation for people wishing to join the Christian community. The core elements of the rite of baptism are the immersion in water or the sprinkling or pouring of water and the profession of faith by, or on behalf of, the person being baptised. While there is considerable variety in the forms of baptism used by various Christian denominations, the core elements of baptism of water and a profession of faith are evident across the spectrum of Christianity. Other elements that are frequently included are readings from the bible, a sermon or homily from the presiding minister, the tracing of the sign of the cross on the forehead of the person being baptised, anointing with oil, prayers for the candidate, clothing in a white garment and presentation of a lighted baptismal candle. The most common form of baptism involves the baptism of infants, however, some Christian denominations do not accept this practice and will only baptise adults who have made a conscious decision to follow the Christian faith. (184) Demonstrate how the chosen practice expresses the beliefs of Christianity Ancient origins Origins of the practice of baptism are ancient Pre-date Christianity itself Some Jewish groups were practising baptism prior to the ministry of Jesus. John the Baptist had baptism as the hallmark of his ministry (Mark 1:4). Jesus’ baptism Jesus accepted the baptism of John (Mark 1:9) Gave instructions to his followers to baptise people in his name (Matthew 28:19) Baptism has great significance in the Christian tradition Expresses a number of important beliefs. Water as a central symbol Water as the central symbol of baptism reflects the belief in God as creator and humankind’s dependence on God Calls to mind images of the waters of chaos from the Genesis accounts of creation (Genesis 1:2) The destructive power of the flood in the story of Noah (Genesis 7-8) The miraculous crossing of the Red Sea in the accounts of the Exodus (Exodus 14) Image of water also calls to mind the image of the womb and the discussion of rebirth in water and the Spirit in John’s Gospel (John 3) This imagery of this story closely parallels the Christian understanding of baptism as a rebirth from original sin into the life of the Spirit The holy trinity Reconciles adherent with trinity > baptised in name of trinity â€Å"Make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit† (Matthew 28:18-20) Repentance Christian understanding of baptism contains a sense of the repentance highlighted in the ministry of John the Baptist The act of repentance proclaimed in John’s baptism expresses the idea of turning away from sin which is integral to the practice of baptism Christians believe that in baptism they are turning away from or renouncing sin and evil and turning in a positive way to live the life of the Spirit â€Å"Repent and be baptised every one of you† (Acts2:38) â€Å"Rise and be baptised and wash away your sins† (Acts 2) Spiritual purification which allows adherent to open self to God in good conscience (1Peter 3:21) Body of Christ: salvation Baptism also expresses the belief of Christians in the Church as the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13) Christians are baptised into the Church, which is the body of Christ As a consequence of becoming part of this body the believer is able to experience more fully the significance of the death and resurrection of Jesus In a spiritual sense, the believer is able to participate through the body of Christ in the mystery of Jesus’ dying and rising â€Å"All were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death†¦therefore†¦just as Christ was raised from the dead and through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life† (Romans 6:3-4) Promise of eternal life > to â€Å"walk in the newness of life† (Romans) â€Å"No one can enter the Kingdom of God without being born of water and the Holy Spirit† John 3:3-5 Early church Early Church community as depicted in the Acts of the Apostles regarded baptism as a necessary element of salvation (Acts 2:38) Sign of their repentance, proclaimed their forgiveness from sin and allowed them to receive the gift of the Holy Spirit The beliefs that baptism is integral to salvation, that it signifies repentance and forgiveness of sin and that it allows for the coming of the Spirit are important beliefs of the Christian faith that are expressed in the practice of baptism Symbols and rituals Symbols used during the rite of baptism also express significant beliefs of the Christian tradition Sign of the cross is used in a number of places in the rite; this simple symbol and ritual action expresses the Christian belief in the triune God which is at the heart of the Christian faith Water Water is another important symbol and links to many ideas in the Christian tradition Water reflects the belief in rebirth and in cleansing from sin which are at the heart of the Christian gospel Anointing Oil is a traditional symbol for healing and strength Also used in the sense of mandating or setting someone aside for a purpose Seen in the anointing of a king such as the anointing of Saul (1 Samuel 10:1-3) Christians are anointed with oil as a sign of their mandate to share in the ministry of Jesus White garment This symbolises the purity of the baptised person Expresses the idea that in baptism the individual is cleansed from original sin Baptism is therefore a new beginning for Christians Baptismal candle It brings to mind notions of Jesus being the light of the world (John 8:12) The word of God being a guiding light for people to follow (Psalm 119:105) Symbolises the conflict between good and evil Light dispelling the darkness in and through the ministry of Jesus (John 1:4-6) Expresses the idea of the gifts bestowed on the individual and their responsibility to use these gifts in service to others (Matthew 5:16) Sample response (‘Analyse’ – 6 Marks): The practice of baptism is an important rite in most denominations of Christianity. It holds a central place as a rite of initiation and expresses many significant beliefs of the Christian tradition. The use of water as the central symbol of baptism reflects the belief in God as creator and humankind’s dependence on God. It calls to mind images of the accounts of creation (Genesis 1:2), the flood (Genesis 7-8) and the Exodus. (Exodus 14).The image of water also calls to mind the image of the womb and the discussion of rebirth in water and the Spirit in John’s Gospel (John 3). This imagery of this story closely parallels the Christian understanding of baptism as a rebirth from original sin into the life of the Spirit. The early Church community as depicted in the Acts of the Apostles regarded baptism as a necessary element of salvation (Acts 2:38).The act of repentance proclaimed in baptism expresses the idea of turning away from sin which is integral to the practice of baptism. Christians believe that in baptism they are turning away from or renouncing sin and evil and turning in a positive way to live the life of the Spirit. The practice of baptism in the Christian tradition also expresses the belief of Christians in the Church as the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13). In a spiritual sense, the believer is able to participate through the body of Christ in the mystery of Jesus’ dying and rising. The symbols used during the rite of baptism also express significant beliefs of the Christian tradition. The most obvious of these is the sign of the cross which is used in a number of places in the rite. This simple symbol and ritual action expresses the Christian belief in the triune God which is at the heart of the Christian faith. The anointing with the oil of Chrism is another important symbol. Oil is a traditional symbol for healing and strength. In baptism, Christians are anointed with oil as a sign of their mandate to share in the ministry of Jesus. The use of a white garment symbolises the purity of the baptised person and expresses the idea that in baptism the individual is cleansed from original sin. (374 words) Analyse the significance of this practice for both the individual and the Christian community Significance of baptism for Individual: Intro: Define baptism Different teachings but common importance The individual is formally accepted into community > share in mission of Church, a rite of passage signifying maturity and conscious commitment to Christ (where adult baptism is concerned) The individual is invited to share in the rich heritage of the sacrament: Parallels with great flood, exodus through the Red Sea > new life, regeneration, freedom from slavery (1 Corinthians 10) Jesus baptized: â€Å"then Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan, to John, to be baptised by him†Ã‚  (Matthew 3) The individual repents and is able to receive salvation: Recognition of inherently sinful nature and need for forgiveness Repent > purifies individual as a symbolic act of internal change â€Å"This is a symbol of baptism, which now saves you also – not the removal of dirt from the body†¦but it saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ† 1 Peter 3:21 Relationship with God > premise for eternal life >Romans talks of being baptised into eternal life so individuals can â€Å"walk in newness of life† â€Å"All were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death†¦therefore†¦just as Christ was raised from the dead and through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life† (Romans 6:3-4) Significance for Community: Affirms the responsibility of the Christian community to support and encourage one another in spiritual development Reinforces importance of roles of parents, godparents/sponsors etc Expands the spiritual house of God >â€Å"But when they believed Philip as he preached the good news of the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women† (Acts 8:12) > this encourages other Christians to continue spreading word Adherents become â€Å"living stones† to be built into the house of God (Deuteronomy 2:5) Cohesion of witness > after Sunday worship so whole congregation can witness Some churches annually baptise whole congregations > renewal of baptismal promises and recital of Creed Sample response (‘Explain’ – 6 Marks): Baptism is a significant practice followed by most Christian denominations. It is used as a rite of initiation for people wishing to join the Christian community. The rite of baptism is significant adherents of Christianity in a number of ways. Firstly it can be regarded as significant because of its ties with the earliest Christian communities and indeed with Jesus’ life and ministry itself. Secondly, it can be regarded as significant for the theological  reflection that if offers to both the individual and the community. Thirdly, it has enormous significance in the saving action of God and the formation of a Christian community. Finally, it has all the significance of an authentic rite of passage for both the individual and the community. The fact that baptism is an ancient ritual is significant for the individual because they walk the same path and share the same rite that has been practiced among Christians since the earliest days of the Church. It is also important for the Christian community as a whole because in celebrating each rite of baptism they are perpetuating the ancient tradition and honouring the intention of Jesus and the early disciples. The rite of baptism has great possibilities for theological reflection. The richness of this reflection is very significant for the individual. There are abundant opportunities for prayerful reflection and spiritual development in the rite of baptism. For the community, the theological richness provides a source of constant reflection and renewal. Further significance of the practice of baptism can be seen in the theological dimension of its place in the economy of salvation. This is significant for the individual who, through their baptism, receives the assurance that they have received the forgiveness of the sins and the gift of the Holy Spirit. Through baptism they are now a member of the body of Christ. The rite of baptism is a profound marker in the life of the community. It marks both their growth through the new member of the community and also is witness to their mission to bring the gospel to others. Baptism is also an authentic rite of passage, for the individual there is significance in the sense of belonging experienced, the sharing with a community of common mind and faith. The community is invigorated when it is engaged in the task of the gospel and enriched by the presence of a new member of the community. (401 words) Sample response (Outline purpose and assess significance – 20 Marks) Baptism is clearly a most significant practice for most Christian denominations. It has profound significance for the person who is baptised and is also important for the Christian community as a whole. The significance can be viewed from a number of different perspectives. Firstly it can be regarded as significant because of its ties with the earliest Christian communities and indeed with the life and ministry itself. Secondly it can be regarded as significant for the theological reflection that if offers to both the individual and the community. Thirdly it has enormous significance in the saving action of God and the formation of a Christian community. Finally it has all the significance of an authentic rite of passage for both the individual and the community. Baptism is an ancient ritual. It has belonged in the life of the Christian community since its inception and indeed predates the Christian movement in the context of Judaism. It seems apparent that some Jewish groups were practising baptism prior to the ministry of Jesus. Indeed, John the Baptist, who is presented in the Gospels as a forerunner to the ministry of Jesus had baptism as the hallmark of his own ministry (Mark 1:4). Jesus himself accepted the baptism of John (Mark 1:9) and gave instructions to his followers to baptise people in his name (Matthew 28:19). Obviously the practice of baptism has great significance in the Christian tradition and indeed it relates to and expresses a number of important beliefs. For the earliest Christians baptism was a profoundly significant event and for Christians today, the possibility of sharing in an event of such ancient significance is rich and rewarding. It is significant for the individual because they walk the same path and share the same rite that has been practiced among Christians since the earliest days of the Church. It is also important for the Christian community as a whole because in celebrating each rite of baptism they are perpetuating the ancient tradition and honouring the intention of Jesus and the early disciples. The rite of baptism has great possibilities for theological reflection. There are images of death  and new life which call to mind the death and resurrection of Jesus. There are also Images of creation and renewal which convey an understanding about the great saving actions of the God of Israel. Further aspects of the rite of baptism allow reflection on the struggle between good and evil in the images of light and darkness. Other images call for reflection on the idea of repentance and forgiveness as well as cleansing and renewal. Indeed it is difficult to find significant aspects of Christian theology which are not captured in the tradition, the symbols and the ritual actions associated with the practice of baptism. The richness of this reflection is very significant for the individual. Whether it be for the candidate preparing for their own baptism or a parent or God parent preparing for a child’s baptism, there are abundant opportunities for prayerful reflection and spiritual development in the rite of baptism. Many Churches invite candidates to prepare for baptism or to prepare for their role as parents or God parents through engaging in a preparation course which helps them make connections between theological themes and their own experience. For the community, the theological richness provides a source of constant reflection and renewal. Many Christian communities invite congregations to renew their own baptismal promises on the occasion of baptisms in the local Church community. These occasions challenge the members of the community to constantly reflect on their vocation as Christians and the significance of their own baptism. The involvement of the community in assisting candidates prepare for their baptism and praying for those involved is yet another dimension of the significance for the community. Further significance of the practice of baptism can be seen in the theological dimension of its place in the economy of salvation. The early Church community as depicted in the Acts of the Apostles regarded baptism as a necessary element of salvation (Acts 2:38). It was a sign of their repentance, proclaimed their forgiveness from sin and allowed them to receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The beliefs that baptism is integral to salvation, that it signifies repentance and forgiveness of sin and that it  allows for the coming of the Spirit are important beliefs of the Christian faith that are expressed in the practice of baptism. This is significant for the individual who through their baptism receives the assurance that they have received the forgiveness of the sins and the gift of the Holy Spirit. Through baptism they are now a member of the body of Christ. The rite of baptism is a profound marker in the life of the community. It marks both their growth through the new member of the community and also is witness to their mission to bring the gospel to others. Baptism is also an authentic rite of passage. It marks the transition of the individual from one stage or state in life onto the next. In terms of the Christian community it marks the transition of a person from being outside of this community to becoming a fully initiated. Thus for the individual there is significance in the sense of belonging experienced, the sharing with a community of common mind and faith. For the community, the process of supporting a person through their preparation and welcoming them into the community through baptism is also highly significant. The community is invigorated when it is engaged in the task of the gospel and enriched by the presence of a new member of the community.